This article explores the complex pathophysiology of autoimmune diseases with a primary focus on the mechanisms underlying the breakdown of immune tolerance. Immune tolerance is essential for preventing the immune system from attacking the body’s own tissues. The review covers both central and peripheral tolerance processes, highlighting how genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and immune regulatory failures contribute to the development of autoimmunity. Key cellular players, such as regulatory T cells and antigen-presenting cells, are discussed in relation to their roles in maintaining immune homeostasis. Additionally, the article examines current understanding of molecular mimicry, epitope spreading, and other pathogenic mechanisms leading to self-reactivity. The challenges in diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune diseases are also addressed, emphasizing the need for targeted therapeutic approaches aimed at restoring immune tolerance rather than merely suppressing immune responses.

В статье рассмотрен сновные трудности и стратегии перевода реалий в контексте художественного текста (на материале перевода поэм Максуда Шейхзаде), а также даны определения термина реалия.В статье рассмотрен сновные трудности и стратегии перевода реалий в контексте художественного текста (на материале перевода поэм Максуда Шейхзаде), а также даны определения термина реалия.

Hozirgi vaqtda polimer chiqindilar ko’payib atrof muhitga katta zarar keltiryapti. Shuning uchun ularni kamaytirish ularning o’rniga tabiiy polimerlar olish dolzarb hisoblanadi. Bunday tabiiy polimerlar turli xil agressiv muhitda parchalanib ketadi. Bunday bioparchalanuvchi polimerlar an’anaviy polimerlarga qaraganda ancha qimmatroqdir. Arzonroq bioparchalanuvchi polimerlar olish uchun polimer kompozitlardan foydalanish bilan bog’liq bo’ladi.

This theoretical research explores the economic views of Abdurauf Fitrat, a prominent Central Asian thinker, by comparing them with his contemporaries and interpreting them through a modern lens. Fitrat's ideas reflect a synthesis of Islamic economic principles and modernist thought. By conducting a comparative analysis with regional and global economic thinkers of his time, this paper aims to highlight the unique aspects of his vision. The study uses a descriptive-analytical method and draws on primary texts, archival material, and secondary scholarly interpretations.

Psixologiyalıq másláhát degen ne, ol qanday, shólkemlestiriliwi hám alıp barılıwı haqqındaǵı tiykarǵı, keń kólemli hám túsinikli bayanlanǵan maǵlıwmatlar haqqında túsinik berilgen.