Nowadays, in practice, when it is required to calculate electromagnetic fields, the use of some mathematical model is of great importance. Because, with the help of this model, it is possible to express the propagation of electromagnetic waves in real conditions. One of them is the plane electromagnetic wave model, which can be used to calculate many wave processes. Let's first understand a little bit about the plane electromagnetic wave. In this, first of all, it is necessary to learn the concept of wave front or wavy surface.

Nowadays, the use of inverter is widely used. The main magnitude of the output voltage from the inverter can be controlled to be constant by implementing a control inside the inverter, which does not require an external control circuit. The most efficient way to do this is through the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control used inside the Inverter. In this article, we will consider single-phase inverters.

Energy consumption will continue to increase the level of production increases while ensuring its growth. Economic development is physical and perfectly automatic based on controlled machines, only consumed energy and can only be accelerated by increasing the level of production.

In this article, valence electron state density, energy band parameters, energetic, optical and electrophysical properties of metal oxide and silicide films with thickness ≤ 40 Å formed on Si/Cu surface during ion implantation and annealing were studied.

The composition, morphology, and electronic structure of SiO2 nanofilms of different thicknesses created by thermal oxidation on the Si(111) surface were studied in this work. It was shown that up to a thickness of 30-40 Å the film has an island character. At d ≥ 60 Å, a homogeneous continuous film of SiO2 is formed, the stoichiometric surface roughness does not exceed 1.5 – 2 nm. Regardless of the thickness of the SiO2 films, no noticeable interdiffusion of atoms is observed at the SiO2-Si boundary. The patterns of changes in the composition, the degree of surface coverage, and the energy of plasma oscillations were determined when the thickness of the SiO2/Si(111) films varied from 20 to 120 Å.