Chronic hepatitis B and C infections remain among the most pressing global public health challenges due to their widespread prevalence, silent progression, and potential to cause irreversible liver damage. The hepatotropic nature of HBV and HCV leads to persistent inflammation, immune-mediated injury, and significant morphological alterations at the hepatocyte level, ultimately resulting in fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This study aims to comprehensively evaluate and characterize the cellular and subcellular morphological changes in hepatocytes in patients with chronic viral hepatitis B and C. Emphasis is placed on cytoplasmic vacuolization, nuclear polymorphism, ballooning degeneration, apoptotic and necrotic changes, Mallory-Denk bodies, and mitochondrial dysfunction. By integrating histopathological findings with current virological and immunological data, the study highlights the mechanisms by which chronic infection alters liver architecture and function. The analysis also underscores the role of liver biopsy and advanced imaging techniques in detecting these morphological patterns and supports the development of targeted therapeutic strategies. These insights are critical for improving early diagnosis, patient stratification, and long-term clinical outcomes in individuals affected by chronic viral hepatitis.

Ushbu maqolada o‘pka alveolalarining gistologik tuzilishi, ularning hujayraviy tarkibi va gaz almashinuvidagi roli batafsil yoritilgan. Alveola devorining asosiy komponentlari — I va II tip pnevmositlar, surfaktant, interalveolyar septum va alveolyar makrofaglar morfologik nuqtai nazardan tahlil qilingan. Shuningdek, alveola va kapillyarlar o‘rtasidagi tuzilmaviy moslashuvlar hamda gaz almashinuvi mexanizmi izchil bayon etilgan. Mavzuning dolzarbligi, ayniqsa respirator kasalliklar, surfaktant yetishmovchiligi, emfizema va fibroz kabi klinik holatlarda alveolalarning buzilishi bilan bog‘liq patologiyalarni anglashda namoyon bo‘ladi.

Ushbu ilmiy maqolada ko‘zning asosiy sezuvchi qismi — retina (to‘r parda)ning gistologik tuzilishi va har bir qatlamning ko‘rish jarayonidagi funksional ahamiyati yoritilgan. Retina 10 ta qatlamdan tashkil topgan bo‘lib, har bir qatlamda maxsus morfologik tuzilma va funksional hujayralar mavjud. Fotoretseptorlar (tayanch rod va konuslar), bipolar va ganglion hujayralar, pigment epiteliysi, neyroglial elementlar ko‘rishning boshlang‘ich bosqichida yorug‘lik signallarini qabul qilish, uzatish va qayta ishlashda asosiy rol o‘ynaydi. Maqolada shuningdek, retina qatlamlarining o‘zaro integratsiyasi, ularning patologik holatlar — masalan, diabetik retinopatiya, glaukoma va retina degeneratsiyalari bilan bog‘liqligi ham tahlil qilingan. Retina gistologiyasini chuqur o‘rganish oftalmologik kasalliklarni erta aniqlash va samarali davolashda muhim ahamiyat kasb etadi.

Ushbu maqolada legal tech texnologiyalarining yuridik xizmatlar sohasidagi ekologik jihatlarini yaxshilash masalalari ko‘rib chiqilgan. Zamonaviy axborot texnologiyalari va raqamli yechimlarning huquqiy xizmatlar ko‘rsatishda atrofmuhitga ta’sirini kamaytirish imkoniyatlari tahlil qilingan. Maqolada ekologik yuridik xizmatlarni rivojlantirish yo‘nalishlari, qog‘ozsiz texnologiyalar, masofaviy xizmatlar va "yashil" huquqiy amaliyot tamoyillari yoritilgan.

Diabet mellitus – bu insulin yetishmovchiligi yoki organizm to‘qimalarining unga nisbatan sezuvchanligining pasayishi natijasida yuzaga keladigan surunkali metabolik kasallik bo‘lib, doimiy giperglikemiya bilan kechadi. Ushbu maqolada diabetning tasnifi, etiologiyasi, patogenezi, klinik ko‘rinishlari va asoratlari yoritilgan. Shuningdek, zamonaviy davolash yondashuvlari – insulin terapiyasi, og‘iz orqali qabul qilinadigan gipoglikemik dorilar, inkretin asosidagi terapiya, SGLT2 ingibitorlari va istiqbolli hujayra hamda gen terapiyalari haqida ma’lumot berilgan. Kasallikni boshqarishda hayot tarzini o‘zgartirish, parhez terapiyasi va profilaktika choralarining ahamiyati alohida ta’kidlangan.