Ushbu maqolada o‘pka alveolalarining gistologik tuzilishi, ularning hujayraviy tarkibi va gaz almashinuvidagi roli batafsil yoritilgan. Alveola devorining asosiy komponentlari — I va II tip pnevmositlar, surfaktant, interalveolyar septum va alveolyar makrofaglar morfologik nuqtai nazardan tahlil qilingan. Shuningdek, alveola va kapillyarlar o‘rtasidagi tuzilmaviy moslashuvlar hamda gaz almashinuvi mexanizmi izchil bayon etilgan. Mavzuning dolzarbligi, ayniqsa respirator kasalliklar, surfaktant yetishmovchiligi, emfizema va fibroz kabi klinik holatlarda alveolalarning buzilishi bilan bog‘liq patologiyalarni anglashda namoyon bo‘ladi.

Ushbu ilmiy maqolada ko‘zning asosiy sezuvchi qismi — retina (to‘r parda)ning gistologik tuzilishi va har bir qatlamning ko‘rish jarayonidagi funksional ahamiyati yoritilgan. Retina 10 ta qatlamdan tashkil topgan bo‘lib, har bir qatlamda maxsus morfologik tuzilma va funksional hujayralar mavjud. Fotoretseptorlar (tayanch rod va konuslar), bipolar va ganglion hujayralar, pigment epiteliysi, neyroglial elementlar ko‘rishning boshlang‘ich bosqichida yorug‘lik signallarini qabul qilish, uzatish va qayta ishlashda asosiy rol o‘ynaydi. Maqolada shuningdek, retina qatlamlarining o‘zaro integratsiyasi, ularning patologik holatlar — masalan, diabetik retinopatiya, glaukoma va retina degeneratsiyalari bilan bog‘liqligi ham tahlil qilingan. Retina gistologiyasini chuqur o‘rganish oftalmologik kasalliklarni erta aniqlash va samarali davolashda muhim ahamiyat kasb etadi.

Ushbu maqolada stressning yurak-qon tomir tizimiga ta’siri va psixosomatik yondashuvning ahamiyati tahlil qilingan. Surunkali stress yurak kasalliklarining, xususan gipertoniya, yurak ritm buzilishlari va ishemik yurak kasalligi rivojlanishiga olib kelishi mumkin. Psixosomatik yondashuv va stressni boshqarish usullari yurak sog‘lig‘ini saqlashda samarali profilaktik choralar hisoblanadi.

This article reveals the importance of didactic games and exercises in the development of oral speech in primary school students. The author analyzes the psychological and pedagogical foundations of speech development in young children and substantiates the positive influence of game forms of learning on the expansion of vocabulary, the strengthening of grammatical structure, and the formation of communicative competence. The article presents effective types of games and exercises aimed at developing oral speech, as well as methodological recommendations for teachers.

Chronic hepatitis B and C infections remain among the most pressing global public health challenges due to their widespread prevalence, silent progression, and potential to cause irreversible liver damage. The hepatotropic nature of HBV and HCV leads to persistent inflammation, immune-mediated injury, and significant morphological alterations at the hepatocyte level, ultimately resulting in fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This study aims to comprehensively evaluate and characterize the cellular and subcellular morphological changes in hepatocytes in patients with chronic viral hepatitis B and C. Emphasis is placed on cytoplasmic vacuolization, nuclear polymorphism, ballooning degeneration, apoptotic and necrotic changes, Mallory-Denk bodies, and mitochondrial dysfunction. By integrating histopathological findings with current virological and immunological data, the study highlights the mechanisms by which chronic infection alters liver architecture and function. The analysis also underscores the role of liver biopsy and advanced imaging techniques in detecting these morphological patterns and supports the development of targeted therapeutic strategies. These insights are critical for improving early diagnosis, patient stratification, and long-term clinical outcomes in individuals affected by chronic viral hepatitis.