Penetration testing (or “pen testing”) is a proactive security technique used to evaluate the defenses of computer systems, networks, and applications by simulating attacks. This article provides a comprehensive overview of penetration testing, covering its phases, methodologies, tools, and ethical/legal considerations. We describe key steps such as planning, reconnaissance, exploitation, and reporting, and discuss different approaches (external, internal, blind, etc.). Common tools (e.g. Nmap, Metasploit, Burp Suite) are reviewed. Ethical issues such as obtaining authorization and complying with laws (e.g. avoiding unauthorized access) are highlighted. Practical examples and diagrams illustrate how penetration tests are conducted in real-world scenarios.

Mazkur maqola til birliklarining kategoriyalashuvi masalasini zamonaviy lingvistik tadqiqotlar nuqtai nazaridan ko'rib chiqadi. Tadqiqot til birliklarini tasniflash prinsiплari, ularning ierarxik tuzilishi va funksional xususiyatlari tahlil qilingan. Maqolada struktural, funksional va kognitiv tilshunoslik yo'nalishlaridagi kategoriyalash yondashuvlari mukayasa qilinadi. Natijalar til birliklarining kategoriyalashuvida semantik, sintaktik va pragmatik mezonlarning o'zaro ta'sirini ko'rsatadi.

Information security and cybersecurity are related but distinct concepts in protecting data. Information security focuses broadly on safeguarding information in any form (digital, physical, or intellectual) by ensuring its confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Cybersecurity specifically concerns the protection of computer systems, networks, and online data from cyber threats. This paper compares these fields in detail, providing definitions, key differences, and practical examples. Diagrams and tables illustrate how each discipline is applied in real-world scenarios. Understanding the difference helps organizations allocate resources appropriately and build effective security strategies.

Maqolada dinning Eron Islom Respublikasining tashqi siyosat strategiyalarida asosiy omil sifatidagi roli ko‘rib chiqiladi, din uning tashqi aloqalarini shakllantirishda asosiy vosita sifatida qanday ishlashi tahlil qilinadi. U Eronning geosiyosiy manfaatlarini, xususan, uning inqilobiy ta’limoti doirasida ta’minlash uchun diniy tamoyillardan foydalanishning mafkuraviy va amaliy mexanizmlarini o‘rganadi.

This research’s aim is to investigate the challenges and effective methods for teaching research skills in higher education of Afghanistan. It focuses on two main questions: (1) What factors stop students from learning research skills with current teaching methods? (2) What practices, resources, and tools best improve research skills? A mixed-methods approach was used, including surveys of 27 Master’s students, 16 faculty members, and interviews with 4 professors. The results indicated that teacher-centered methods hinder skill development. 53.5% of participants expressed dissatisfaction with those methods. On the other hand, 72.1% believe that interactive methods enhance research skills, although implementation of these methods is difficult. Limited resources and lack of support from institutions are main challenges. This study suggests to its readers that using the student-centered teaching, the usage of technology, and institutional support are essential for improving research education in Afghanistan. This research provides practical recommendations for policymakers and educators. It emphasizes practical learning and faculty development in order to promote critical thinking and research.